הלב במחלות מערכתיות

A wide variety of systemic diseases may affect the heart by a number of different mechanisms, including increasing demands on the heart, causing arrhythmias, affecting the structure of the heart or promoting cardiovascular disease and therefore coronary heart disease.

Common cardiac associations with systemic disease include:

• Endocrine and metabolic:
  

  • סוכרת: coronary artery disease, cardiomyopathy, congestive heart failure.

  • יתר פעילות של בלוטת התריס: supraventricular tachycardia, atrial fibrillation, hypertension.

  • תת פעילות של בלוטת התריס: bradycardia, dilated cardiomyopathy, heart failure, pericardial effusion.

  • Malignant carcinoid: tricuspid and pulmonary valve disease, right heart failure.

  • Phaeochromocytoma: hypertension, tachycardia, congestive heart failure.

  • אקרומגליה: heart failure.

  • המוכרומטוזיס: heart failure, arrhythmias, heart block.

  • מחלת אנדרסון-פברי: arrhythmias, coronary artery disease, heart failure.

• Nutrition:
  

  • תת תזונה: dilated cardiomyopathy, heart failure.

  • Thiamine deficiency: high-output heart failure, dilated cardiomyopathy.

  • Hyperhomocysteinaemia: premature atherosclerosis.

  • השמנת יתר: cardiomyopathy, heart failure.

• Multisystem diseases:
  

  • דלקת מפרקים שגרונית: pericarditis, pericardial effusion, coronary arteritis, myocarditis, valvulitis.

  • ארתרופתיות סרונגטיביות: aortitis, aortic and mitral insufficiency, conduction abnormalities.

  • זאבת אדמנתית מערכתית (SLE): pericarditis, Libman-Sacks endocarditis, myocarditis, thrombosis (arterial and venous).

  • עמילואידוזיס: heart failure, restrictive cardiomyopathy, valvular regurgitation, pericardial effusion.

  • סרקואידוזיס: heart failure, dilated or restrictive cardiomyopathy, ventricular arrhythmias, heart block.

  • תסמונת מרפן: aortic aneurysm and dissection, aortic insufficiency, mitral valve prolapse.

  • תסמונת אהלרס-דנלוס: aortic and coronary aneurysms, mitral valve prolapse.

• זיהום HIV: myocarditis, dilated cardiomyopathy, pericardial effusion.

אי ספיקת לב

אי ספיקת לב may be caused or precipitated by any condition that puts a greater demand on the heart - eg, fever, severe anaemia, thyrotoxicosis and pregnancy.

טרשת עורקים

• Coronary arteries may be involved in מחלת קוואסקי and, very rarely, in late עגבת.

• The association between coronary heart disease and diabetes is as well known. It is also well known to be associated with abnormalities of lipid metabolism, including the metabolic syndrome.¹

• There is also a strong relationship between coronary heart disease and rheumatoid arthritis.²

יתר לחץ דם

Any cause of secondary יתר לחץ דם, such as renal disease (eg, גלומרולונפריטיס, polyarteritis nodosa, סקלרודרמה מערכתית, chronic pyelonephritis, or polycystic kidneys), or endocrine disease (eg, תסמונת קושינג, Conn's syndrome, phaeochromocytoma, אקרומגליה, היפרפאראתירואידיזם), may cause hypertensive heart disease, which may lead to left ventricular hypertrophy.

Lung disease

Disease of the lungs can also lead to right ventricular hypertrophy and strain.

• Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), including that due to the general disease of cystic fibrosis.

• Recurrent תסחיף ריאתי.

• Primary יתר לחץ דם ריאתי.

קדחת שגרונית

קדחת שגרונית is now very uncommon in Western Europe, although it is still seen in other parts of the world, especially Africa.³

• Rheumatic fever may cause disease of the mitral valve and/or the aortic valve. This is usually mitral stenosis or aortic stenosis but mitral regurgitation or aortic regurgitation may occur alone or in combination.

• Acute rheumatic fever is also associated with myocarditis, which can be severe. A soft, rumbling, mid-diastolic murmur, called the Carey Coombs' murmur, may be heard during active disease. Severe disease is associated with a greater risk of recurrence.

Other causes of valvular heart disease

As rheumatic fever appears to be confined to history, at least in the UK, other causes of disease of heart valves take importance. Many are congenital heart disease.

• דלקת חוליות מקשחת may be associated with aortic regurgitation.

• Incompetent valves, including mitral valve prolapse may occur with a number of the hypermobility syndromes, including תסמונת אהלרס-דנלוס, תסמונת מרפן, תסמונת דאון and joint hypermobility syndrome.

• תסמונת מרפן may cause aortic regurgitation and even aortic aneurysm at the root.

• Another cause of aneurysm of the proximal aorta with aortic regurgitation is tertiary עגבת.

• Heart valves may be affected in many systemic autoimmune diseases, such as דלקת מפרקים שגרונית, SLE, antiphospholipid antibody syndrome, the seronegative spondyloarthropathies, the systemic vasculitides and scleroderma.⁴

Any damage or abnormality of the heart or valves makes them susceptible to subacute bacterial endocarditis. Acute bacterial endocarditis can occur when drug addicts inject themselves with heavily infected material.

Pericardial disease

• ראה את הנפרד Acute Pericarditis, Chronic Pericarditis ו Pericardial Effusion articles. These are often associated with systemic disease and they are often inflammatory diseases or infections.

• Constrictive pericarditis may impair adequate filling of the heart. שחפת is one possible cause. תפליט פריקרדיאלי can further constrict the heart and cause cardiac tamponade.

קרדיומיופתיה

Cardiomyopathy is discussed much more fully in the separate קרדיומיופתיות article. They may be primary or due to other disease. Many systemic diseases may cause cardiomyopathy, including:

• סרקואידוזיס.

• Metabolic: diabetes, עמילואידוזיס, מחלת וילסון, המוכרומטוזיס, glycogen storage diseases.

• Drugs and poisons:
  

  • Around 7 or 8 units of alcohol (>80g) a day for at least five years are required to develop cardiomyopathy.⁵ However, it is probably an underdiagnosed cause and may represent 30% of dilated cardiomyopathy. Women are susceptible at a lower dose than men. High consumption of alcohol also leads to hypertension.

  • Many other substances have been implicated. Examples include cocaine, amphetamines, chemotherapy for malignancy.⁶

• Cardiomyopathy may occur in patients on long-term dialysis.

• Endocrine disease: acromegaly, phaeochromocytoma, diabetes mellitus (maternal diabetes can also have an adverse effect on the developing fetal heart),⁷ hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism.

• Connective tissue disorders: systemic sclerosis (may cause myocarditis or pericardial effusion), rheumatoid arthritis (can cause pericardial effusion, valvulitis and myocardial fibrosis), SLE (is associated with pericarditis, hypertension, an increased risk of coronary heart disease and Libman-Sacks endocarditis).

• Infections: acute viral infection (especially Coxsackie B), South American trypanosomiasis (Chagas' disease), הפטיטיס B, HIV infection.

• Nutritional: malnutrition, vitamin B1 deficiency, obesity.

• Myopathies: דושן ניוון שרירים, דיסטרופיה שרירית על שם בקר.

Malignant disease

• Metastatic spread of malignancy to the heart is far more common than primary cardiac tumours.⁸ The most common clinical presentation is from pericardial effusion, tachyarrhythmias, atrioventricular block and congestive heart failure.

• Tumours most likely to metastasise to the heart are malignant melanoma, leukaemia, malignant germ cell tumours and malignant thymoma.

• Although carcinoma of the lung ו שד do not often metastasise to the heart, because of the very high numbers, they account for the greatest numbers of cardiac metastases.

• Carcinoma of the lung can also cause פרפור פרוזדורים in the absence of metastatic spread to the heart.

Central nervous system

• ECG abnormalities and rhythm disorders often occur in patients with דימום תת-עכבישי and in cases of ischaemic stroke, intracranial haemorrhage, head trauma, neurosurgical procedures, acute meningitis, intracranial space-occupying tumours and אפילפסיה.

• New-onset atrial fibrillation has been reported in up to one third of patients with acute stroke.

Renal disease

Abnormalities of renal function may affect the heart in a number of ways:

• Renal impairment may impair the clearance of drugs that are potentially cardiotoxic, such as digoxin.

• Electrolyte disturbances associated with acute kidney injury או chronic kidney disease may cause cardiac abnormalities, particularly hypokalaemia, hyperkalaemia, hypercalcaemia ו hypocalcaemia. Other electrolytes, including magnesium, may also be important.

• מחלת כליות כרונית may result in pericardial effusion.

• Long-term dialysis may cause cardiomyopathy.⁹

• Kidney disease may lead to hypertensive cardiac disease.

Assessment

If there is any suspicion that the heart may be involved in systemic disease, this needs to be investigated or it may become apparent on other investigations. In addition to any other investigation for the suspected underlying disease:

• Cardiovascular history and examination and clinical assessment of other systems as applicable.

• Blood tests for myocardial infarction (cardiac enzymes - particularly troponins) and/or heart failure (including brain natriuretic peptide (BNP)).

• CXR may show an enlarged heart, although it may not be clear if this is due to hypertrophy of the myocardium or dilation of the chambers. It may also indicate heart failure.

• 12-lead ECG.

• Echocardiography.

• Other investigations may be indicated - eg, cardiac catheterisation, MRI scan, Doppler flow studies, nuclear cardiology and other cardiac scans.